a collection of essays, papers, and ideas

Broadcast media and the subsequent innovations thereof have had an effect on the creative process of musicians, composers, and performers.  New technologies have allowed for musicians to expand their fan base and reach new audiences.  As radio entered the media landscape, Jody Berland commented, “music-programming is not the main commodity produced by radio, but is rather the means to the production of radio’s real commodity – the audience – to be sold to advertisers in exchange for revenue to the broadcaster” (Negus, pg 57).  This idea permeates through modern day radio and television and has serious consequences regarding creativity and longevity in the music business.

Timothy Dowd explores some of the factors that constrain and/or facilitate production.  The structures, careers, markets, technology, and law of the recording industry are the framework for Dowd’s work.  (Dowd citing Peterson, pg 236).  Classical music received its structure through non-profit organizations; these groups are more concerned with debt reduction instead of profit maximization, much different than the pop music realm.  Classical stations on the radio often have an older, wealthier audience that is willing to donate money, as well as some government and art group subsidies.  The industrial structure of pop radio follows a pattern of previous success, the commercial nature of the recording industry attempting to “commodify that which was once communal” (Dowd citing Hesmondhalgh, pg 237).  The large, vertically integrated record companies had locks on distribution and promotion, forcing other competitors out.  This led to increased market concentration, with only a few large companies at the top of the food chain.  Increased market concentration led to a decrease in diversity; these large record companies “strive for that product which pleases the most without offending any major group of consumers” (Peterson & Berger, pg 159).  Since it became harder and harder to get one’s song played on the radio, some resorted to payola as a promotional tool.  This eliminated the credibility of DJs and also the promoters who were pushing the record.  Peterson and Berger’s study concludes that increased market competition leads to more diversity and innovation, but also that increased concentration leads to homogeneity in music.

In Steve Lee’s article, “Predicting cultural output diversity in the radio industry, 1989-2002,” he tacks on some evidence and ideas to Peterson and Berger’s argument.  Lee argues that as market concentration rises, there is also an increase in format variety.  Before television, radio stations had a diverse array of programming, “as each of the four networks competed with the others to capture the largest national audience” (Lee pg 326).  The Telecommunications Act of 1996 allowed for companies to own several stations within market, which led to increasing formats.  As one company would absolve a market’s stations, each new station could take on a different format to appeal to a certain sect of the audience.  Lee uses statistical data to back his research, consulting with different markets and charts to compile a comprehensive study.  He argues that companies used niche bundling as an attempt to “eliminate competition…and to attract distinct segments of the audience” (Lee pg 333).  This is worrisome to those in the creative process since there is less competition to shop their work to.  The creative work itself is devalued as well as the performer – the structures and institutions behind radio had created a system in which the talent was at the whims of corporations.

When television entered the picture in the 1950’s, a new set of standards was introduced.  There was now a visual element to recorded music, which literally changed the face of pop music.  Susan Douglas discusses the girl groups in the 60’s and the impact that Diana Ross had on the America public and abroad; these groups were polished, nicely dressed, and always on point.  Diana Ross had the mass appeal that advertisers and promoters could sell to anyone.  Not only did musicians have to be skilled at their craft, but for mainstream success they also needed to appear in a certain way.  Rather than practicing their instruments or rehearsing their routine, groups went to “charm school” – prepping the act to be seen in the America’s living rooms.  When MTV entered the picture in 1981, the entire game was flipped upside down; both musicians and record industry players had to reformulate their plans to accommodate this media innovation.  Within two years MTV had become “perhaps the most crucial element in the marketing of a rock’n’roll song. Video has become a powerful force in the music business, and MTV has become an obsession to the music industry.  The video tail is wagging the musical dog” (Levy pg 33).  At this point, it was clear that the creative processes of musicians are affected by media innovation, but it is up to the creator to decide whether an innovation like MTV facilitates or constrains their career.  For some, the visual medium of television could not work any better – artists like Madonna and Michael Jackson exploded and their careers grew exponentially because of their videos on MTV.  It can be argued that Jackson’s presence single-handedly saved the music industry.  Record companies started producing video and this affected what new artists they were signing.  Now, musicians had to be telegenic and the decisions over recording a single were increasing lying in the hands of the record companies.  This eliminates the freedom of recording a record; the structures of MTV and commercialized format-based radio put a stronghold on the creative processes of musicians, composers, and performers.  They allowed for national exposure in ways never imagined in the early 20^th century but at a creative cost that some might not be willing to concede to.

While broadcast media have affected the ways in which creativity and originality flourish, musicians are now seeing the landscape of the music industry democratized by the Internet.  In the heyday of radio and television, the tail was most definitely wagging the dog.  Now, the playing field has been leveled and it is a new, more democratized ball game.  There are new constraints on creativity, but many avenues have been opened as well.